In the West, we like to think that equality on the basis of gender is almost a reality. Unfortunately, there is a great deal of progress that still needs to take place for that sentiment to become realistic. For example, women earn significantly less money than men and in Canada this sparked legislation to reduce the income inequality (Busby 47). Clearly, governments are beginning to recognize that these problems are real and require attention. Unfortunately, domestic governments across the globe have done very little to address a systemic problem in politics: the lack of female representation in politics. Because of this, idealistic women that want to get into politics are forced to blend into the male dominated world of politics. This blog will deal with the roles to which women in politics must conform in order to gain credibility and respect in a political system that is for the most part ruled by men.
This blog was actually inspired by a song. In the song “I Feel So” by Boxcar Racer, a first person narrative from the male perspective with no apparent feminist metaphors, Tom DeLonge says, “I wish I had power. I wish I could lead. I wish I could change the world, for you and me.” I had listened to the song many times but upon hearing it shortly after one of my Women and Gender Studies lectures, I had something of an epiphany: the women of the world that dream big and want to make an impact by running for public office are forced to conform to gender roles, and this upsets me.
The unfortunate situation for women looking to make an impact in politics is that looking, acting, and thinking in masculine ways is the most logical path to take. Quite simply, feminine thinking is not regularly associated with politics (Mingst 154). These concepts of masculinity and femininity are clearly to blame for the deplorable circumstances that women looking to enter the political realm are forced to confront. These gender roles dictate many of the founding principles of public policy and international relations (Baylis 181). Domestically, it can be argued that two types of personalities most often succeed in democratic elections: the understated professional and the charismatic risk taker. The difficulty for women is that these personalities are associated with masculine traits rather than feminine ones. Liberal Feminists in International Relations (IR) theory aim to analyze the, “ways in which women are excluded from power and prevented from playing a full part in political activity” (Baylis 182). This masculine bias certainly is a factor in the exclusion of women from the political arena.
Before we closely examine the roles that women are conforming to, it is important to illustrate the endemic that is under-representation on the basis of gender in politics. The statistics are alarming. In 2007, only 17% of the worldwide members of parliament were female (Wolbrecht, Campbell 922). Women held, on average, just 17% of cabinet positions in established democracies in the late 1990’s and only 39 countries have ever elected a female head of state (Wolbrecht, Campbell 922). Even for those unlikely women that are able to achieve power, female heads of state typically share many ideological similarities, with most coming from right wing parties (Wiliadarty 493-494). This suggests that beyond conforming to gender roles, women seeking representation in politics are also held back by ideological beliefs that may have the appearance of femininity. Even within think tanks in Washington, there is a clear under-representation of women. Only 21% of the total policy-related staff from 10 of America’s leading policy institutes is female (Zenko, Foreign Policy).
Kim Campbell, Canada’s first and only female PM
Many IR theorists have taken note of the importance of gender roles. Standpoint feminists specifically noticed, “how the knowledge, concepts, and categories of world politics were predicated upon a norm of masculine behaviour and masculine experiences, and therefore represented not a universal standard – but a highly specific, particular standard” (Baylis 182-183). The social construct of gender roles have been the focus of post modern feminists, who recognize that these agreed upon norms bring masculinity to the forefront of political thought and in doing so make for a challenging environment for women (Baylis 183).
It is not difficult to find examples of the significance of these gender roles in action. Take for instance the recent vice presidential candidacy of Governor Sarah Palin. Palin complemented McCain’s calm demeanor by giving off the image of a woman that can get things done and is not afraid to get her hands dirty. These traits are far more masculine than feminine. She even embodied the masculine image as the hunter by openly showcasing her affinity for hunting. Lastly, the way she constantly referred to herself as a maverick is in itself a reference to a masculine identity as a fearless trailblazer. Ultimately, it has been argued that it was Palin’s feminine appearance that played a major role in her defeat in 2008 (Heflick, Goldenberg 149-152). Female politicians in important cabinet positions also conform to this masculine gender role. An analysis of female defense ministers worldwide revealed a 2.5% growth in military budgets and a stronger propensity to engage in military conflict in comparison with their male counterparts (Keating, Foreign Policy). It would appear that female politicians want to make it clear to voters and pundits alike that they are not lacking the aggressiveness that is expected of them.
Palin hunting in Alaska
Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher provides further context to this discussion. In her diplomatic relations, Thatcher has been described as utilizing a, “firm and robust approach” (Blundell 197). Whether or not this style is reflective of her true personality or merely a tactic to fit the more accepted masculine political archetype is hard to determine, but there is no refuting that in the media this is how she was represented. Thatcher was seen by most as a strong woman that was demanding and aggressive (Blundell 199). Thatcher and Palin provide valuable case studies for those interested in the representation of female politicians by the media, as both clearly wished to portray themselves to the populace in a very masculine way.
This discussion of women and gender roles reverberates throughout popular culture, and some strong parallels can be drawn between the representation of femininity/masculinity and the political situation that women face. For instance, a connection can be made between the subordination of Barbie to Ken and the power dynamics in politics. There are women playing a supporting role in politics, but rarely are they given the absolute authority that the typically male head of state is given. Barbie is at one point given the career of stewardess in order to complement Ken’s position as the pilot; this is illustrative of the patriarchal society that women have to deal with (Pearson, Mullins 238-240). In her analysis of cinema, Mulvey points out that it is the man that advances the story and the male protagonist commands the stage (Mulvey 20-21). The man has the power while the woman is merely a spectacle for the audience to observe (Mulvey 20). This resembles the current situation for women in politics, as they are forced to embody the masculine identity or risk being left out of positions of power.
It is evident from this analysis that gender roles play a significant role in the political world. Women are under-represented in politics, presumably because voters and aspiring female politicians feel they lack the necessary masculine qualities. Those that do run for office do their best to conform to the masculine role that is expected of them and the media portrays them as tough women. It is unfortunate that the political world is so masculinized and that women aiming to make a difference in politics are under-represented and must present themselves as masculine in order to succeed.
Works Cited
Baylis, John, and Steve Smith. The globalization of world politics: an introduction to international relations. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.
Blundell, John. Lady Thatcher a Portrait.. New York: Algora Pub., 2008. Print.
Busby, Nicole. "Affirmative Action in Women's Employment: Lessons from Canada." Journal of law and society 33.1 (2006): 42-58.
Heflick, NA, and JL Goldenberg. "Sarah Palin, A Nation Object(Ifie)s: The Role of Appearance Focus in the 2008 US Presidential Election." (2011).
KEATING, JOSHUA E.. "Iron Ladies - By Joshua E. Keating | Foreign Policy." Foreign Policy - the global magazine of economics, politics, and ideas. Web. 1 Aug. 2011. < http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/04/25/iron_ladies>
Mingst, Karen. Essentials of international relations . 4th ed. New York [u.a.: Norton, 2008. Print.
Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative.” Visual and Other Pleasures. Basingstoke: Macmillan, Palgrave, 2009. 14–30.
Pearson, Maryls and Paul R. Mullins. “Domesticating Barbie: An Archaeology of Barbie Material Culture and Domestic Ideology.” International Journal of Historical Archaeology (1999): 225–259.
Wiliarty, Sarah Elise. "Chancellor Angela Merkel - A Sign of Hope Or the Exception that Proves the Rule?" Politics & Gender 4.3 (2008): 485-96.
Wolbrecht, Christina(1), and David E. (1) Campbell. "Leading by Example: Female Members of Parliament as Political Role Models." American Journal of Political Science 51.4, pp. 921-939 (2007): October.
ZENKO, MICAH. "It's a Man's World - By Micah Zenko | Foreign Policy." Foreign Policy - the global magazine of economics, politics, and ideas. Web. 1 Aug. 2011. <http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/07/14/its_a_mans_world>
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